Monday 8 October 2012
Free Learning Softwares in Urdu: AutoCAD 2012 for 32Bit & 64Bit Full Version Free D...
Free Learning Softwares in Urdu: AutoCAD 2012 for 32Bit & 64Bit Full Version Free D...: Design and shape the world around you with AutoCAD® software, one of the world’s leading CAD programs. Explore ideas more intuitively...
Sunday 7 October 2012
MIRP,AZADKASHMIR
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
A significant portion of the population is settled in England (UK) – mostly in the Midlands and north. For this reason Mirpur is sometimes known as "Little England". Many products from the UK are found in this city.[1]Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Early Mirpur
1.2 British rule
1.3 Indo-Pakistan War of 1947-48
1.4 Post war
2 Mirpur City
3 Industry
4 Education
5 Transport
6 Shopping
7 Food
8 Language and demographics
9 Culture
9.1 Cultural events
9.1.1 Saif Ul Malook Festival
9.1.2 Retowa Mehla
9.1.3 Pahari Mushahira
10 Ethnic groups in Mirpur
11 Development
12 Tourism
13 Geography and climate
14 Surroundings
15 Notable people of Old Mirpur
16 Friendship cities
17 Gallery
18 See also
19 References
20 External links
[edit]
History
Bawli, Old Mirpur
The area that is now Mirpur has always been a crossroad for major invasions of the subcontinent and has formed part of various empires over time including Achaemenid empire of Persia, an outlying region of the conquests of Alexander the Great, the Kingdom of Gandhara, the Mauryan empire, the Kushan empire, the Sultanate of Ghazni, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal empire amongst others.
The city of Mirpur itself was founded in around 1642 AD or 1052 AH by the Ghakhar chief Miran Shah Ghazi. The Imperial Gazetteer of India Provincial Series Kashmir and Jammu (1909) provides this information about Mirpur history as "it is said to have been founded by Miran Shah Ghazi and Sultan Fateh Khan".
The area now comprising Mirpur has been historically associated with Pothohar. Though modern demarcation of Potohar devised by British excludes Mirpur by using Jhelum river as the eastern boundary. By the end of 18th century, Gakhar power in Pothohar had declined. Mirpur had become part of Chibb ruled state of Khari Khariyali with capital at Mangla Fort. With the rise of Sikh power in Punjab, Maharaja Ranjit Singh established his supremacy and set his eyes on the Chibh states of Bhimber and Khari Khariyali. In 1810, a force was sent against Raja Sultan Khan of Bhimber and was met with fierce resistance. However, in 1812 another Sikh army under prince Kharak Singh defeated Sultan Khan and the Bhimber state was annexed as Jagir of Kharak Singh. Around the same time, Ranjit Singh acquired Gujrat and invaded Khari Khariyali ruled by Raja Umar Khan. Raja Umar Khan made peace with Ranjit Singh. But before a settlement could be made, he died and the state and Mirpur became part of Ranjit Singh's territories.
In 1816, Ranjit Singh annexed Jammu state and in 1820 awarded Jammu to his commander Gulab Singh who hailed from Jammu and was under the service of Ranjit Singh for the past eight years. Between 1831–39 Ranjit Singh bestowed on Gulab Singh the royalty of the salt mines in northern Punjab, and the northern Punjab towns including Bhera, Jhelum, Rohtas, Mirpur and Gujrat. Gulab Singh kept on expanding his kingdom and in 1840 Baltistan was made subject to Jammu and Gilgit fell to a Sikh force from Kashmir in 1842. The state of Kashmir was annexed by Ranjit Singh in 1819. However the rebellion in Hazara in the beginning of 1846, compelled the country to be transferred to Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu as well.
Shrine of Meeran Shah
As an aftermath of the First Anglo-Sikh War and the Treaty of Lahore, The Treaty of Amritsar was signed between the British Government and Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu on March 16, 1846. This treaty transferred him all the hill states between Ravi and Indus. The transfer included Kashmir, Hazara and the southern hill states (including former Khari Khariyali). Thus sealing the fate of Mirpur with the new state of Jammu and Kashmir.[2]
[edit]
Early Mirpur
Since Mirpur lies at the point where the Jhelum River breaks out of the heavily forested foothills of the Pir Panjal mountains into the plains of the largely treeless Punjab. It was an ideal spot for the construction of the boats used to carry goods down the five rivers of the Punjab to the Indus River and onto the seaports in the Indus delta. Traders have been operating from there across the Indian Ocean for over three thousand years. Most of the crew on the boats trading up and down the Punjab and Indus River system were drawn from Mirpur, as training as a boat-builder was a necessary prerequisite for becoming a boatman.
[edit]
British rule
With the arrival of British rule however, the thriving river trade was decimated due to the construction of railway lines from Bombay and Karachi into the interior of the Punjab. Moving goods by rail was both cheaper and quicker, and hundreds of Mirpuri boatmen found themselves out of a job.
At the same time long-distance ocean trade was shifting from sail to steam. There was a huge demand for men who were prepared to work in the hot, dirty and dangerous stokeholds of the new coal-fired steamers. European seamen avoided such jobs whenever they possibly could. They preferred to work on deck. But in the 1870s Mirpuri ex-river boatmen were desperately searching for a new source of income. Although unfamiliar with stoking coal-fired boilers, they were prepared to learn and quickly gained a virtual monopoly of jobs as engine-room stokers on new steamships sailing out of Karachi and Bombay, a position they retained until coal-fired ships were finally phased out of service at the end of the Second World War.
[edit]
Indo-Pakistan War of 1947-48
On 14 August 1947, Mirpur was part of the princely state of Kashmir under the rule of Maharaja Hari Singh. A revolt against his rule erupted with the advent of Pakistan. This gained momentum by the invasion of Pushtun tribesmen from FATA. Most of Kashmir's state forces had barricaded themselves in Mirpur after having retreated from the surrounding posts in particular from Mangla Fort. On the outskirts of the city, the Pakistani military attacked the Maharaja's forces on the 4th November 1947. Between 6th and 11 November, heavy battles between Pakistani and Indian forces took place within the city. Mirpur city was captured by the Pakistani military on 11 November and the rest of Mirpur district was captured by 25 November 1947.
[edit]
Post war
After World War II a new set of opportunities opened up. Britain's economy was just setting off on what proved to be a long post-war boom, and there was an acute short of labour in the foundries of the Midlands, and the textile mills of Yorkshire and Lancashire. Now it was the turn of ex-seamen to become industrial workers in Britain. So when the Mangla Dam was about to be contructed in 1960, the affectees of the dam who were going to be deprived of their agricultural land were afforded the opportunity to migrate to the United Kingdom and to join those of their kinsfolk who long before had established themselves in Britain.
As a result, Mirpur is one of the principal sources of migration from the State of Jammu Kashmir to Europe, and especially to Britain, so much so that out of a million migrants from the state of Jammu Kashmir and Pakistan, most of them i.e. 88% are Kashmiris. Although it is widely believed that the principal reason for this outflow was the construction of the Mangla Dam, which in doubt is true. But the fact is that long before construction of dam, a sizable Kashmiri community existed in the UK.
[edit]
Mirpur City
Regency Hotel, Bank Square
Mirpur city is situated at 459 meters above sea-level and is linked with the main Peshawar-Lahore Grand Trunk road at Dina Tehsil. It is the headquarters of Mirpur District, which comprises three sub-divisions, Mirpur, Chaksawari and Dadyal.[3] The building of the new city in late Sixties paved the way for New Mirpur situated on the banks of Mangla lake. In fact the remains of the old city (old Mirpur) are underneath the waters of the Mangla Lake, during colder months the water level decreases such that you can see the tops of minarets from the first mosques, and also the remnants of a Sikh gurdwara as well as a Hindu mandir possibly dedicated to the "mangla mata" (mangla mother goddess). This is a glimpse of pre-independence times when there were many faiths co-existing in Kashmir as a whole, but however after partition the Hindus, Buddhists and Sikhs fled to India. Mirpur was well planned and the buildings are mostly of modern design, in addition there is significant inward investment from expatriates now living in the United Kingdom, Europe, North America and the Middle East. The city has a number of hotels, restaurants, shopping malls and other urban facilities.
[edit]
Industry
As Mirpur adjoins the industrial cities of Pakistan, the Government of Azad Jammu & Kashmir has successfully endeavoured to develop it as an industrial place and promote private investment for establishing, foam, polypropylene, synthetic yarn, motorbikes, textile, vegetable ghee, logging and sawmills, soap, cosmetics, marble, ready-made garments, matches, rosin, turpentine and scooter industrial units in the area. However, much of the infrastructure still needs further development in order to compete on a national level.
As part of the relief/compensation package in the wake of Mangla Dam Raising Project, a New City is being developed along the southeastern outskirts of Mirpur. Civil works at huge scale are going on around the whole district, by the Pakistani & Chinese contractors for raising the dam. Four towns in the district have been planned besides the new city, to resettle the population affected by the project.
[edit]
Education
The literacy rate in Mirpur is quite high. It is affected by the emigrating tendency in the youngsters to UK. English language is common in educational institutes. Previously the University of Azad Jammu & Kashmir was the only institution for higher studies but in the last decade there are significant changes in the educational infrastructure. The formation of Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST) and recently Mohi-ud-Din Islamic Medical College are extraordinary achievements. AJK Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education, Mirpur is responsible for the studies at lower levels. In addition to the state-run schools and colleges, Mirpur has a well-developed private sector providing the education to all sects of the society. Some of these include:
Mohtarma Benazir Bhutto Shaheed Medical College Mirpur, Azad Kashmir
Mohi-ud-Din Islamic Medical College
Mohi ud Din Islamic Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mirpur AJK
Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST)
Kashmir Model College Mirpur (KMC)
Crescent Model College Mirpur
Kalri Computers (KC)
Pak Kashmir Institute of Computer Sciences
Kashmir Institute for Advanced Studies (KIAS)
Mirpur Public School
Akson College of Health Sciences
ITech Academy (ITA)
Kashmir Language Institute (KLI)
Abdul Razzaq Institute
Sanwala Institute of Computer Sciences
Roots School System
The Guidance House School System
The City School
MIRPUR College Of English Language UK (M Cel)Since 2005
Superior Science College
[edit]
Transport
CNG auto rickshaws are very popular mode of transport for short routes within the city. The city's transport system links it to a number of destinations in Azad Kashmir notably Bhimber, Dadyal, Kotli and Khoi Ratta and to major cities in Pakistan as well included services to Gujrat, Jhelum, Kharian, Gujranwala, Lahore and Rawalpindi. There is no railway station in Mirpur. The closest station is in Jhelum City, Punjab. The promise of a rail extension to Mirpur has not yet been fulfilled. Islamabad Airport services the Mipur region and is approximately 100 miles away. Biggest city of azad Kashmir is waiting for the airport to be build so people can escape from many stations of bribery and toles set by police local governments And Evan cor commonder Mangla is also involve in snatching money from every vehicle coming to mirpur,people are facing hell soon after they cross the mangla bridge and there soul return as soon as they enter in Kashmir
[edit]
Shopping
Known as the shopping capital of Azad Kashmir, Mirpur has a large and diverse shopping area, centred around Chowk Shaheeda and Mian Mohammed Road. There are many stores, plazas, shopping malls and markets in these thoroughfares, selling everything from hand made pottery to international brands. The currently under construction Nosha Shopping Centre will be one of the largest shopping centres of the city when completed. Azad Mega Mart is the well known shopping plaza of the city. There is shareef market situated near the police lines, Puranian Hatyan which is famed for its high and top class varieties of ready made and unstitched clothing.
[edit]
Food
Mirpur is well known for its food centres and restaurants. Samosa is a speciality.
[edit]
Language and demographics
Mirpuri Potohari, Majhi and Gojri dialects of Punjabi Language and Kashmiri language are the predominant languages of the City. Other languages spoken include Urdu and english.
According to the 1998 census Mirpur had a population of approximately over 100,000. This does not include those who emigrated to the Middle East, Western Europe and North America. Mirpur's original population is mostly ethnic Potoharis. However since 1947, Kashmiri emigrated from the neighbouring Rajouri and Poonch districts of the Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir and Pathans as well as Afghan refugees also have become a part of the local population. A majority of Mirpuris living abroad reside in England.[4]
[edit]
Culture
Mirpur (to the west and south) borders the Potohar plateau of Pakistan and the ethnicity, language and culture of both Potohar and the Mirpur district are virtually the same.
[edit]
Cultural events
[edit]
Saif Ul Malook Festival
The Saif Ul Malook Festival takes place annually in April, usually in the city centre. It is an important event celebrating the anniversary of Baba Pir-e-Shah Ghazi Qalandar (Damrian Wali Sarkar) who was the spiritual guide/teacher of Mian Muhammad Bakhsh, the Sufi saint & Potwari poet famous for his poetic piece Saif ul Malook.
[edit]
Retowa Mehla
The Retowa Mehla takes place annually in Summer, in the Retowa District near the Dam front. It is an important event celebrating culture value peace and tolerance. Other notable events that take place in Retowa vary from year to year and are mostly religious events.
[edit]
Pahari Mushahira
Pahari Mushahira is a literary event in which poets from all over Azad Kashmir present their poems to general audience. Pahari Mushahira are celebrated regularly in Mirpur city as part of the campaign of Alami Pahari Adabi Sangat for the preservation and rehabilitation of the Pahari language and the Culture of Jammu and Kashmir.
[edit]
Ethnic groups in Mirpur
See also: Ethnic Groups of Azad Kashmir
The people of Mirpur are of three main ethnic groups.
Arain – A well known ethnic group of mirpur.They play an important role in mirpur's business, mostly engaged in commercial businesses. Migrated to Mirpur from Punjab.
Awan – Especially in Sungot, Khari sharif, Andrah & Islamgarh.
Gakhar – They are a Persian tribe which reside mainly in Mirpur city, Dadyal and adjacent areas in sizeable numbers.
Gujjar – One of the three major ethnic groups in Mirpur. Most reside in Mirpur, Islam Gar, Dadyal and New Mirpur.
Jarral – Jarrals are found in size able numbers in New Mirpur.
Jatt – Represent biggest of the three majority ethnic groups of Mirpur. Most reside in the Jatt heartlands of Chaksawri, Dadyal, New city of Mirpur and the countryside surrounding Mirpur.
Ansari – Most Populated Ethnic group of Mirpur. Lived especially in Central City, Dadyal and adjacent areas. Most families are lived in United Kingdom after The Dam Raising.
Kakazai – A well educated ethnic group mostly settled in Mirpur city, linked to business.
Kashmiri – Minority clans in Mirpur are Butt, Lone, and Dar. They are the descendants of Kashmiri pundits, who belonged to the priestly caste of Brahmins and migrated from Kashmir Valley, while Mirs and Khawajas are migrants from Arab.
Mughals – Mughals are scattered all over the Mirpur District. Notable for being highly active in the education sector.
Rajputs – Third of the three major ethnic groups in number, they play an active role in politics and bureaucracy. Rajputs are scattered all over the Mirpur District and comprise of many clans.
Sheikh – Most people who classify themselves as Sheikhs in Mirpur are descendants of Brahmin, Khatri or Rajput Hindus who converted to Islam. Most reside in Mirpur city.
Sayyids – Though a minority group they are a very active people and occupy important positions in all sectors.
Pashtun - Sizeable communities of Pashtun can be found due to recent migration.
[edit]
Development
In recent times Mirpur city has seen many new developments. Some of the schemes approved and under construction include:
New Mirpur City
Retowa Main road and Bridge
Abbas Towre Apartments
Export Promotion Zone
Jinnah Model Town
Mangla Dam upraising
Mirpur Dry Port
Mirpur Grand Rest House
Moori Industrial Zone
New Industrial Area
Quid-e-Azam Stadium
Sultan Town
Valley Homes Mirpur
[edit]
Tourism
Mangla Dam
The government of Azad Kashmir is paying special attention to tourism in AJK and Mirpur, building new theme parks, rest houses, hotels and renovating old forts to attract tourists to the region. Places of interest in Mirpur are:
Basharat Shaheed Monument
Jari Kas
Khari Sharif
Mangla Dam
Mangla Fort & Museum
Ragu Nath Temple
Ramkot Fort
Shivala Temple
[edit]
Geography and climate
Mirpur is bounded on the north and east by Kotli District, on the west by Pothohar and on the south by Bhimber.
Mirpur is the breadbasket of Azad Jammu and Kashmir and has a climate similar to that of the neighbouring Potohar region. The Town and district is primarily agriculturally based and is presently a tourist hotspot and a home from home for many emigrants, which can be seen by the vast amounts of villas and mansions built in the region.
Since it is located at the extreme south of the state Jammu & Kashmir, the climate is extremely hot and dry during summer – making it very similar to the Pakistani areas of Jehlum and Gujar Khan. Most of its bushy landscapes, stretching from Bhimber to Dadyal, are barren – leaving only a small stretch of fertile land but highly productive land in the surrounding of Mangla water. The only crop cultivated during the spring/summer season is millet. However, there are a few farms that grow vegetables and wheat, especially when the dam water subsides during the winter season. The hydroelectric power from the dam makes this district somewhat unique among others. However, the annoyance caused by unannounced hours-long daily blackout makes many Kashmiris resentful over unfair energy supply.
[edit]
Surroundings
Dadyal is 65 km from Mirpur at north, the 2nd largest city after Mirpur in AJK.
Bhimber is 50 km from Mirpur, the area is very rich in archaeological remains.
Kotli is 101 km. from Mirpur, the area is hilly and beautiful views of valleys.
Chakswari is a Tehsil of the Mirpur District. Approximately 40 km from Mirpur city, it is fast becoming a commercial area of the district.
Kakra Town: Kakra Town is 12–15 KM from Mirpur, the area is beautiful and creates nice views to mangladam.
Islamgarh Islamgarh is situated in North East of Mirpur city. Travel distance is 30 km.
Jandi Chontra a popular scenic spot 67 km from Mirpur in Bhimber District, the Shrine of the Sufi Saint Hazrat Sheikh Baba Shadi Shaheed is also located here.
Sahalia 70 km from Mirpur city.
Khari Sharif located 8 km from Mirpur, it is famous for its Sufi shrines.
Mangla town is located 16 km from Mirpur, it is situated at the mouth of the Mangla Dam for which it is famous.
Khaliqabad is 6 km from Mirpur its an intersection for the main road leaving mirpur city, this area is home to large Bainse and Jat population
Football Chowk, in sector D4, is situated on the outskirts of Mirpur city. This area is home to a large number of wealthy expatriates, local business men, government and ISI officials.
Bhalot, is amongst Mirpur's one of most populous villages.
Mehmunpur Rajgan, Situated 15 km from Mirpur city near Pul Manda.
Jangian Kotla is located near river Jehlum and situated approximately 20 km south of Mirpur.
==Notable people of Old Mirpur Mian Mohammad buksh(undisputed no1 poet of Punjabi and writer of the Seifalmalook Late col syad Ali ahmmad shah presidan of azad Kashmir Late Ghazi elahi buksh(freedom fighter,leader)father of arshad Mahmoud ghazi mla and minister 1988-1993 Ch noor Hussain,(freedom movement leader)mla and minister and father of ex prime minister ch sultan Mahmoud brother of ch khadam Hussain mla from khari And uncle of ch arshad Hussain mla and minister from khari Late Nazeer Hussain jarral D.C s/o Mohammad Hussain jarral, zaildar,minister all jummu&kashmir assembly
Raja Sajjawal Khan – Zaildar and Assessor[disambiguation needed] of Khari Sharif in pre-partition era
Krishan Dev Sethi – General secretary of Democratic Conference Jammu and Kashmir[5]
Late Mohammad din pehlwan Late major Mohammad khan jarral(the tiger of Gilgit,conqueror of Zojila fort 1948,founder of A.k regiment,founder of Janbazz force Late hakeem ch fazal ellahi
[edit]
Notable people of Old Mirpur
Mian Mohammad Buksh, a poet of Punjabi and writer of the Seifalmalook Late col syad Ali ahmmad shah presidan of azad Kashmir Late Ghazi elahi buksh(freedom fighter,leader)father of arshad Mahmoud ghazi mla and minister 1988-1993 Ch noor Hussain,(freedom movement leader)mla and minister and father of ex prime minister ch sultan Mahmoud brother of ch khadam Hussain mla from khari And uncle of ch arshad Hussain mla and minister from khari Late Nazeer Hussain jarral D.C s/o Mohammad Hussain jarral, zaildar,minister all jummu&kashmir assembly
Raja Sajjawal Khan – Zaildar and Assessor[disambiguation needed] of Khari Sharif in pre-partition era
Krishan Dev Sethi – General secretary of Democratic Conference Jammu and Kashmir[5]
Late Mohammad din pehlwan Late major Mohammad khan jarral(the tiger of Gilgit,conqueror of Zojila fort 1948,founder of A.k regiment,founder of Janbazz force Late hakeem ch fazal ellahi Anuvind Kanwal, A noble scholar from Mirpur. Now in New Delhi.
[edit]
Friendship cities
Nottingham, England
Birmingham, England[6]
Bradford, England[7]
London Borough of Waltham Forest, England[8]
Brussels, Belgium
[edit]
Gallery
Holiday Inn, Mirpur
Masjid Noor
Mirpur Bazaar
Chowk Shaheedan
Ragu Nath Temple, Old Mirpur
Shivala Temple, Old Mirpur
Quaid-e-Azam Stadium
[edit]
See also
Baba Shadi Shaheed
British Pakistani
Chowk Shaheedan
Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front
Khari Sharif
Maqbool Bhat
Mirpur Development Authority
Mirpur Punjabi
Pahari
Prince Saiful Malook and Badri Jamala
Quaid-e-Azam Stadium
Sunday 30 September 2012
flower
POST BY ADNAN KARIM AWAN
FREE ENCYCLOPEDIA BY ADNAN KARIM AWAN
A poster with flowers or clusters of flowers produced by twelve species of flowering plants from different families
A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also called angiosperms). The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs. Flowers may facilitate outcrossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population) or allow selfing (fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower). Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization (parthenocarpy). Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. Flowers give rise to fruit and seeds. Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to cause them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen.
In addition to facilitating the reproduction of flowering plants, flowers have long been admired and used by humans to beautify their environment, and also as objects of romance, ritual, religion, medicine and as a source of food.Contents [hide]
1 Morphology
1.1 Floral formula
1.2 Inflorescence
2 Development
2.1 Flowering transition
2.2 Organ development
3 Floral function
3.1 Flower specialization and pollination
4 Pollination
4.1 Attraction methods
4.2 Pollination mechanism
4.3 Flower-pollinator relationships
5 Fertilization and dispersal
6 Evolution
7 Symbolism
8 Usage
9 See also
10 References
11 External links
Morphology
Diagram showing the main parts of a mature flower
A stereotypical flower consists of four kinds of structures attached to the tip of a short stalk. Each of these kinds of parts is arranged in a whorl on the receptacle. The four main whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are as follows:
Calyx: the outermost whorl consisting of units called sepals; these are typically green and enclose the rest of the flower in the bud stage, however, they can be absent or prominent and petal-like in some species.
Corolla: the next whorl toward the apex, composed of units called petals, which are typically thin, soft and colored to attract animals that help the process of pollination.
Androecium (from Greek andros oikia: man's house): the next whorl (sometimes multiplied into several whorls), consisting of units called stamens. Stamens consist of two parts: a stalk called a filament, topped by an anther where pollen is produced by meiosis and eventually dispersed.
Gynoecium (from Greek gynaikos oikia: woman's house): the innermost whorl of a flower, consisting of one or more units called carpels. The carpel or multiple fused carpels form a hollow structure called an ovary, which produces ovules internally. Ovules are megasporangia and they in turn produce megaspores by meiosis which develop into female gametophytes. These give rise to egg cells. The gynoecium of a flower is also described using an alternative terminology wherein the structure one sees in the innermost whorl (consisting of an ovary, style and stigma) is called a pistil. A pistil may consist of a single carpel or a number of carpels fused together. The sticky tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style, becomes the pathway for pollen tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma.
Although the arrangement described above is considered "typical", plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. These modifications have significance in the evolution of flowering plants and are used extensively by botanists to establish relationships among plant species.
Christmas Lily (Lilium longiflorum). 1. Stigma, 2. Style, 3. Stamens, 4. Filament, 5. Petal
The four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions and/or look like what is typically another part. In some families, like Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced and in many species the sepals are colorful and petal-like. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-like, the double flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens.[1] Flowers show great variation and plant scientists describe this variation in a systematic way to identify and distinguish species.
Specific terminology is used to describe flowers and their parts. Many flower parts are fused together; fused parts originating from the same whorl are connate, while fused parts originating from different whorls are adnate, parts that are not fused are free. When petals are fused into a tube or ring that falls away as a single unit, they are sympetalous (also called gamopetalous.) Connate petals may have distinctive regions: the cylindrical base is the tube, the expanding region is the throat and the flaring outer region is the limb. A sympetalous flower, with bilateral symmetry with an upper and lower lip, is bilabiate. Flowers with connate petals or sepals may have various shaped corolla or calyx including: campanulate, funnelform, tubular, urceolate, salverform or rotate.
Many flowers have a symmetry. When the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point, symmetrical halves are produced, forming a radial symmetry. These flowers are also known to be actinomorphic or regular, e.g. rose or trillium. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic, e.g. snapdragon or most orchids.
Flowers may be directly attached to the plant at their base (sessile—the supporting stalk or stem is highly reduced or absent). The stem or stalk subtending a flower is called a peduncle. If a peduncle supports more than one flower, the stems connecting each flower to the main axis are called pedicels. The apex of a flowering stem forms a terminal swelling which is called the torus or receptacle.
Floral formula
Floral diagram for the genus Nepenthes
A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be used to represent the flower structure of a plant family rather than a particular species. The following representations are used:
Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e. g. Ca5 = 5 sepals)
Co = corolla (petal whorl; e. g., Co3(x) = petals some multiple of three )
Z = add if zygomorphic (e. g., CoZ6 = zygomorphic with 6 petals)
A = androecium (whorl of stamens; e. g., A∞ = many stamens)
G = gynoecium (carpel or carpels; e. g., G1 = monocarpous)
x: to represent a "variable number"
∞: to represent "many"
A floral formula would appear something like this:
Ca5Co5A10 - ∞G1
Several additional symbols are sometimes used (see Key to Floral Formulas).
Inflorescence
The familiar calla lily is not a single flower. It is actually an inflorescence of tiny flowers pressed together on a central stalk that is surrounded by a large petal-like bract.
Main article: Inflorescence
In those species that have more than one flower on an axis, the collective cluster of flowers is termed an inflorescence. Some inflorescences are composed of many small flowers arranged in a formation that resembles a single flower. The common example of this is most members of the very large composite (Asteraceae) group. A single daisy or sunflower, for example, is not a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence composed of numerous flowers (or florets).
An inflorescence may include specialized stems and modified leaves known as bracts.
Development
A flower is a modified stem tip with compressed internodes, bearing structures that are highly modified leaves.[2] In essence, a flower develops on a modified shoot or axis from a determinate apical meristem (determinate meaning the axis grows to a set size).
Flowering transition
The transition to flowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life cycle. The transition must take place at a time that is favorable for fertilization and the formation of seeds, hence ensuring maximal reproductive success. To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in levels of plant hormones and seasonable temperature and photoperiod changes.[3] Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernalization to flower. The molecular interpretation of these signals is through the transmission of a complex signal known as florigen, which involves a variety of genes, including CONSTANS, FLOWERING LOCUS C and FLOWERING LOCUS T. Florigen is produced in the leaves in reproductively favorable conditions and acts in buds and growing tips to induce a number of different physiological and morphological changes.[4] The first step is the transformation of the vegetative stem primordia into floral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change cellular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will grow into the reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides develop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances develop into the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed and the stems develop flowers, even if the initial start of the flower formation event was dependent of some environmental cue.[5] Once the process begins, even if that cue is removed the stem will continue to develop a flower.
Organ development
The ABC model of flower development
The molecular control of floral organ identity determination is fairly well understood. In a simple model, three gene activities interact in a combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities of the organ primordia within the floral meristem. These gene functions are called A, B and C-gene functions. In the first floral whorl only A-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of sepals. In the second whorl both A- and B-genes are expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and in the center of the flower C-genes alone give rise to carpels. The model is based upon studies of homeotic mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana and snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus. For example, when there is a loss of B-gene function, mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the first whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation. In the third whorl the lack of B function but presence of C-function mimics the fourth whorl, leading to the formation of carpels also in the third whorl. See also The ABC Model of Flower Development.
Most genes central in this model belong to the MADS-box genes and are transcription factors that regulate the expression of the genes specific for each floral organ.
Floral function
An example of a "perfect flower", this Crateva religiosa flower has both stamens (outer ring) and a pistil (center).
The principal purpose of a flower is the reproduction of the individual and the species. All flowering plants are heterosporous, producing two types of spores. Microspores are produced by meiosis inside anthers while megaspores are produced inside ovules, inside an ovary. In fact, anthers typically consist of four microsporangia and an ovule is an integumented megasporangium. Both types of spores develop into gametophytes inside sporangia. As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes also develop inside the spores (are endosporic).
In the majority of species, individual flowers have both functional carpels and stamens. These flowers are described by botanists as being perfect or bisexual. Some flowers lack one or the other reproductive organ and called imperfect or unisexual If unisex flowers are found on the same individual plant but in different locations, the species is said to be monoecious. If each type of unisex flower is found only on separate individuals, the plant is dioecious.
Flower specialization and pollination
Further information: Pollination syndrome
Flowering plants usually face selective pressure to optimize the transfer of their pollen, and this is typically reflected in the morphology of the flowers and the behaviour of the plants. Pollen may be transferred between plants via a number of 'vectors'. Some plants make use of abiotic vectors — namely wind (anemophily) or, much less commonly, water (hydrophily). Others use biotic vectors including insects (entomophily), birds (ornithophily), bats (chiropterophily) or other animals. Some plants make use of multiple vectors, but many are highly specialised.
Cleistogamous flowers are self pollinated, after which they may or may not open. Many Viola and some Salvia species are known to have these types of flowers.
The flowers of plants that make use of biotic pollen vectors commonly have glands called nectaries that act as an incentive for animals to visit the flower. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and color. Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits.
Anemophilous flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next. Examples include grasses, birch trees, ragweed and maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Male and female reproductive organs are generally found in separate flowers, the male flowers having a number of long filaments terminating in exposed stamens, and the female flowers having long, feather-like stigmas. Whereas the pollen of animal-pollinated flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to animals.
Pollination
Main article: Pollination
Grains of pollen sticking to this bee will be transferred to the next flower it visits
The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction. Since the flowers are the reproductive organs of plant, they mediate the joining of the sperm, contained within pollen, to the ovules — contained in the ovary. Pollination is the movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma. The joining of the sperm to the ovules is called fertilization. Normally pollen is moved from one plant to another, but many plants are able to self pollinate. The fertilized ovules produce seeds that are the next generation. Sexual reproduction produces genetically unique offspring, allowing for adaptation. Flowers have specific designs which encourages the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. Many plants are dependent upon external factors for pollination, including: wind and animals, and especially insects. Even large animals such as birds, bats, and pygmy possums can be employed. The period of time during which this process can take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called anthesis.
Attraction methods
A Bee orchid has evolved over many generations to better mimic a female bee to attract male bees as pollinators.
Plants cannot move from one location to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations. Flowers that are insect-pollinated are called entomophilous; literally "insect-loving" in Greek. They can be highly modified along with the pollinating insects by co-evolution. Flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious nectar. Birds and bees have color vision, enabling them to seek out "colorful" flowers. Some flowers have patterns, called nectar guides, that show pollinators where to look for nectar; they may be visible only under ultraviolet light, which is visible to bees and some other insects. Flowers also attract pollinators by scent and some of those scents are pleasant to our sense of smell. Not all flower scents are appealing to humans; a number of flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals, often called Carrion flowers, including Rafflesia, the titan arum, and the North American pawpaw (Asimina triloba). Flowers pollinated by night visitors, including bats and moths, are likely to concentrate on scent to attract pollinators and most such flowers are white.
Still other flowers use mimicry to attract pollinators. Some species of orchids, for example, produce flowers resembling female bees in color, shape, and scent. Male bees move from one such flower to another in search of a mate.
Pollination mechanism
The pollination mechanism employed by a plant depends on what method of pollination is utilized.
Most flowers can be divided between two broad groups of pollination methods:
Entomophilous: flowers attract and use insects, bats, birds or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower to the next. Often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement of the stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (such as nectar, pollen, or a mate). In pursuing this attractant from many flowers of the same species, the pollinator transfers pollen to the stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of all of the flowers it visits. Many flowers rely on simple proximity between flower parts to ensure pollination. Others, such as the Sarracenia or lady-slipper orchids, have elaborate designs to ensure pollination while preventing self-pollination.
A grass flower head (Meadow Foxtail) showing the plain coloured flowers with large anthers.
Anemophilous: flowers use the wind to move pollen from one flower to the next, examples include the grasses, Birch trees, Ragweed and Maples. They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be "showy" flowers. Whereas the pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large-grained, sticky, and rich in protein (another "reward" for pollinators), anemophilous flower pollen is usually small-grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects, though it may still be gathered in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees actively gather anemophilous corn (maize) pollen, though it is of little value to them.
Some flowers are self pollinated and use flowers that never open or are self pollinated before the flowers open, these flowers are called cleistogamous. Many Viola species and some Salvia have these types of flowers.
Flower-pollinator relationships
Many flowers have close relationships with one or a few specific pollinating organisms. Many flowers, for example, attract only one specific species of insect, and therefore rely on that insect for successful reproduction. This close relationship is often given as an example of coevolution, as the flower and pollinator are thought to have developed together over a long period of time to match each other's needs.
This close relationship compounds the negative effects of extinction. The extinction of either member in such a relationship would mean almost certain extinction of the other member as well. Some endangered plant species are so because of shrinking pollinator populations.
Fertilization and dispersal
Main article: biological dispersal
Some flowers with both stamens and a pistil are capable of self-fertilization, which does increase the chance of producing seeds but limits genetic variation. The extreme case of self-fertilization occurs in flowers that always self-fertilize, such as many dandelions. Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, or pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower types, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-sterile or self-incompatible (see also: Plant sexuality).
Evolution
Further information: Evolution of flowers
Archaefructus liaoningensis, one of the earliest known flowering plants
Amborella trichopoda, the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants
While land plants have existed for about 425 million years, the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation of their aquatic counterparts: spores. In the sea, plants—and some animals—can simply scatter out genetic clones of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants reproduced. But plants soon evolved methods of protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other abuse which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the seed, though it had not yet evolved the flower. Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo and conifers. The earliest fossil of a flowering plant, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated about 125 million years old.[6] Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps.
Recent DNA analysis (molecular systematics)[7][8] shows that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, is the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants, and morphological studies[9] suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants.
The general assumption is that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve animals in the reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore be a liability, using the plant's resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with a hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps.
Likewise, most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the flower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus scattering the seeds it contains.
While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland organisms, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life.
While there is only hard proof of such flowers existing about 130 million years ago, there is some circumstantial evidence that they did exist up to 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, oleanane, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including gigantopterids,[10] which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of petrification.
The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.[11] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior".
Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.[12]
Symbolism
Lilies are often used to denote life or resurrection
Flowers are common subjects of still life paintings, such as this one by Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder
Main article: Language of flowers
Many flowers have important symbolic meanings in Western culture. The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as floriography. Some of the more common examples include:
Red roses are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion.
Poppies are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and Canada, red poppies are worn to commemorate soldiers who have died in times of war.
Irises/Lily are used in burials as a symbol referring to "resurrection/life". It is also associated with stars (sun) and its petals blooming/shining.
Daisies are a symbol of innocence.
Flowers within art are also representative of the female genitalia, as seen in the works of artists such as Georgia O'Keeffe, Imogen Cunningham, Veronica Ruiz de Velasco, and Judy Chicago, and in fact in Asian and western classical art. Many cultures around the world have a marked tendency to associate flowers with femininity.
The great variety of delicate and beautiful flowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th-19th century Romantic era. Famous examples include William Wordsworth's I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and William Blake's Ah! Sun-Flower.
Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been a favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as Van Gogh's sunflowers series or Monet's water lilies. Flowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to create permanent, three-dimensional pieces of flower art.
The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is Chloris.
In Hindu mythology, flowers have a significant status. Vishnu, one of the three major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight on a lotus flower.[13] Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance.[14] For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation.[15]
Usage
Flower market, Detroit's Eastern Market.
A woman spreading flowers over a Lingam in a temple in Varanasi
In modern times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or otherwise be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable appearance and smell. Around the world, people use flowers for a wide range of events and functions that, cumulatively, encompass one's lifetime:
For new births or Christenings
As a corsage or boutonniere to be worn at social functions or for holidays
As tokens of love or esteem
For wedding flowers for the bridal party, and decorations for the hall
As brightening decorations within the home
As a gift of remembrance for bon voyage parties, welcome home parties, and "thinking of you" gifts
For funeral flowers and expressions of sympathy for the grieving
For worshiping goddesses. in Hindu culture it is very common to bring flowers as a gift to temples.
People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate entire parts of their living space to flower gardens, pick wildflowers, or buy flowers from florists who depend on an entire network of commercial growers and shippers to support their trade.
Flowers provide less food than other major plants parts (seeds, fruits, roots, stems and leaves) but they provide several important foods and spices. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower and artichoke. The most expensive spice, saffron, consists of dried stigmas of a crocus. Other flower spices are cloves and capers. Hops flowers are used to flavor beer. Marigold flowers are fed to chickens to give their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find more desirable. Dandelion flowers are often made into wine. Bee Pollen, pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. Honey consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is often named for the type of flower, e.g. orange blossom honey, clover honey and tupelo honey.
Hundreds of fresh flowers are edible but few are widely marketed as food. They are often used to add color and flavor to salads. Squash flowers are dipped in breadcrumbs and fried. Edible flowers include nasturtium, chrysanthemum, carnation, cattail, honeysuckle, chicory, cornflower, Canna, and sunflower. Some edible flowers are sometimes candied such as daisy and rose (you may also come across a candied pansy).
Flowers can also be made into herbal teas. Dried flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, camomile are infused into tea both for their fragrance and medical properties. Sometimes, they are also mixed with tea leaves for the added fragrance.
Flowers have been used since as far back as 50,000 years in funeral rituals. Many cultures do draw a connection between flowers and life and death, and because of their seasonal return flowers also suggest rebirth, which is the why many people place flowers upon graves. In ancient times the Greeks would place a crown of flowers on the head of the deceased as well as cover the tomb with wreaths and flower petals, rich and powerful women in ancient Egypt would wear floral headdresses and necklaces upon their death as representations of renewal and a joyful afterlife, and the Mexicans to this day use flowers prominently in their Day of the Dead celebrations in the same way that their Aztec ancestors did.
Eight Flowers, a painting by artist Qian Xuan, 13th century, Palace Museum, Beijing.
See also
Gardening
Garden
List of garden plants
Plant evolutionary developmental biology
Plant sexuality
Sowing
POST BY ADNAN KARIM AWAN
Kotli (Urdu: کوٹلی, Pahari-Potohari/Hindko/Pashto: کوٹلی) or Cotly, as known in Britain, is the chief town of Kotli District, in the Pakistani-administered Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Kotli is linked with Mirpur by two metalled roads, one via Rajdhani, (90 km) and the other via Charhoi. It is also directly linked with Rawalakot via Trarkhal (82 km) and a double road which links Kotli with the rest of Pakistan via Sehnsa, another major town in Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Kotli is roughly a three hours drive from Islamabad and Rawalpindi, at a distance of 117 km via Sehnsa.Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Ranjit Singh and the Dogras
2 Indo-Pakistan War of 1947-48
3 Modern Kotli
4 Communications
5 Friendship cities
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
[edit]
History
As stated in History of the Punjab Hill States by J.Hutchinson and J.P. Vogel: "Kotli was founded about the fifteenth century by a branch of the royal family of Kashmir. Kotli and Poonch remained independent until subdued by Ranjit Singh in 1815 and 1819 respectively."
The royal family of Kashmir Hutchinson and Vogel are referring to is the family of Raja Mangar Pal. Before its name was Kohtali mean (under mountain) after that people changed its name to Kotli. Kotli was historically known as Kotli.
There is a famous saying in Azad Kashmir: "Kotli Mangrallan da, Rajouri Jarrallan da, Bhimber Chiban da, Mirpur Gakharan da"
Translation:
• Kotli is ruled by the Mangral Rajputs, Rajouri is ruled by the Jarral Rajputs, Bhimber is ruled by the Chib Rajputs and Mirpur[disambiguation needed] is ruled by the Gakhar Rajputs
[edit]
Ranjit Singh and the Dogras
History of the Punjab Tribes by J. Hutchinson and J.P. Vogel lists a total of 22 states, 16 Hindu and 6 Muhammadan (Muslim) that formed the State of Jammu following the conquest of Raja Ranjit Singh in 1820. Of these 6 Muhammadan States two (Kotli and Poonch) were ruled by Mangrals, two (Bhimber and Khari-Khariyala) by Chibs one (Rajouri) by the Jarrals and one (Khashtwar) by the Khashtwaria. Of these 22 states 21 formed a pact with Ranjit Singh and formed the State of Jammu. Only Poonch ruled by the Mangrals retained a state of semi-autonomy. Following the War of 1947 Poonch was divided and is now split between Pakistan Administered Kashmir Poonch District (AJK) and Indian Administered Kashmir Poonch
The Mangral Rajput ruled Kotli state for several centuries until they were defeated by the army of the Sikh leader Ranjit Singh. Following two endless battles the Sikh army returned in 1815 with 30,000 soldiers and a final battle ensued. Having lost many fighters the Mangrals were defeated by the Sikhs and regions held under the leadership of the Mangral Rajputs of Jammu and Kashmir was handed over to the Sikhs to stop further bloodshed.
The Panjab Hill States were merged by Ranjit Singh into the state of Jammu which was passed into the control of Kishore Singh the father of Gulab Singh and a distant relative of Jit Singh the Raja of Jammu. Gulab Singh had joined the army of Ranjit Singh in 1812 and had risen through the ranks and found favour with Ranjit Singh. The granting of Jammu was a reward for the services of Gulab Singh and family.
The 27 years of Sikh rule followed by the 100 years of Dogra rule were a period considered to be the most stable in Kashmir. Kotli was populated by Sikhs imported by Ranjit Singh from the Punjab. In particular, they set up in Kotli Sikh Blacksmiths workshops which supplied the Sikh army with weaponry.
Following the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839 the Sikh Empire went into slow decline. Ranjit Singh was succeeded by his eldest son Kharak Singh who was in power for only a few months before being removed and replaced by his son Nau Nihal Singh. Kharak Singh the eldest legitimate son of Ranjit Singh was imprisoned by the Sikhs and suffered a painful death through slow torturing. Whilst returning from the funeral of his father, Nau Nihal Singh was injured when the archway of a wall was made to collapse on him. Nau Nihal Singh was replaced by another son of Ranjit Singh, namely Sher Singh. Sher Singh was himself killed only two years later in 1841 as he reached for a new shotgun held by his cousin Ajit Singh Sandhawalia, who pulled the trigger. Sher Singh only had time to utter the words "what treachery" before Ajit Singh removed his head with a single blow from his sword.
The British replaced Pratap Singh (the grandson of Gulab Singh) with his brother Amar Singh[disambiguation needed] who in turn was succeeded by his own son Hari Singh. There the line of Dogra rulers would end as the heir apparent Karan Singh never took the throne.
[edit]
Indo-Pakistan War of 1947-48
In November 1947, the Indian Army reached Kotli and evacuated the garrisons of the town. The Pakistani Army along with the Rajputs and Jats of Azad Kashmir aided by the tribesmen of the North West Frontier Province arrived and counter-attacked, forcing the Indian Army to abandon it. Kotli has been under Pakistani rule since.
[edit]
Modern Kotli This section does not cite any references or sources. (February 2011)
Today Kotli is a winter town. Notable places in Kotli fist of all main kotli best place to visit is sarda point, near river gori park, roli hills, butt fire and many other today kotli shaping it self and it look like a mini islamabad the hill views river views and many more are Khuiratta, Chowki Tinda, Kurti, Roli, Brali and Dhamol. The town has become a vision of three-storey mansions that have taken over the once-barren roads between the outer ring villages and the ever-expanding city sitting on the brim of the Poonch River. The most famous and notable buildings are the three Khan-Wali fortresses: Khan-Wali House, Khan-Wali Palace, Khan-Wali Towers,Jame Masjid Gulhar Sharif,Jame Masjid Ghosia Balyah and Tehsil Guest House (Some Great people stayed there since it was built by Dogra rulers).
The mass emigration that took over the country in the 1960s has now created a steady boom of summer holiday makers from Britain and beyond who seek to reconnect their European-born children to the old country. Kotli has international links throughout Western Europe and North America. Like many Azad Kashmiris (Poonch valley - a region found in the Jammu part of Jammu and Kashmir) living in the fringes of the Mangla Dam in Mirpur, emigration fever took hold of the surrounding country from the mid 1950s onwards.
Kotli has ties with many European cities such as Amsterdam, Hamburg and especially the larger industrial cities of northern and central England. Many Kotli city residents have ties to British nationals in the city of Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds, Bradford, Luton, Bedford, Watford and Birmingham. Kotli is also known as the city of mosques due to the fact that there are more than three hundred mosques in Kotli.
[edit]
Communications
Four privately owned cable Television systems: Family Cable Network, Kashmir Cable Network, Kehkashan Cable Network and Janjora Cable Network, are available in Kotli, which transmit Pakistani and international television programs.
A local FM radio station also broadcasts at FM 96.5.
Cell phone service is available through six private cell phone operators: Paktel, Mobilink, Ufone, Warid, Telenor and SCOM. PTCL Wireless is also available (Also Under The Authority of PTA Supervisor Adrees Adil).
[edit]
Friendship cities
- Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom
- Luton, Luton/Dunstable Urban Area, England, United Kingdom
- Bradford, West Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom
- Rochdale, Greater Manchester, England, United Kingdom
- Birmingham, West Midlands, England, United Kingdom
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)